No-title-available_2009_Neuroeconomics

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Index
 A 
 Acetylcholine , 331 
 Action
 choice models with , 441 
 coding
 and FACS , 242 
 in striatum , 407 
 consequences of , 71 
 default , 356–357 
 emotion component in , 235 , 244 
 empathy and , 251 
 frontal cortex and , 71 
 instrumental, 373 
 prediction of , 263f 
 preparation for , 72f 
 refl ex vs. , 367 
 reinforcement learning and , 331 
 selection of 
 decision variables in , 472 
 LIP and , 463 
 Markov decision process and , 367 
 optimal , 331 
 superior colliculus and , 72f 
 tendencies of , 235 , 244 
 understanding of , 251 
 Actor/critic
 in brain , 367 
 literal implementation of , 381–382 
 in Markov decision process , 367 
 Adaptive coding , 325 
 Affect . See also Emotion 
 categories of , 233 
 decision making with 
 architecture of , 175 
 goal-directed control in , 175 
 habitual control in , 175 
 model-based values in , 175 
 model-free values in , 175 
 Pavlovian control in , 175 
 disposition of , 233 
 emotion and , 234 
 Aggregate models of decision variable , 
 468
 Aleatory uncertainty , 131 
 Allais, Maurice , 3 
 Allais paradox , 3 , 147 
 expected utility theory and , 148 , 508 
 prospect theory and , 149 
 Altruism . See also Pure altruism 
model
 adaptive challenge of , 269 
 contingent reciprocity and , 269 
 in games , 17 
 goals and , 303 
 kin selection and , 269 
 life-span differences in , 303 
 models of 
 alternative , 303 
 constraints on , 303 
 warm-glow , 303 
 neural basis of , 74–75 
 primates’ , 269 
 in-group bias with , 269 
 nepotistic bias with , 269 
 reciprocity in , 269 
 punishment as, Pavlovian response 
and , 175 
 striatum in , 74–75 
 Ambiguity
 aversion to , 154 
 decision making models under , 
362
 in prospect theory , 154 
 in reward-risk computational 
model , 353 
 Analyst-client game , 204 
 Animal models 
 capuchin monkey as , 86 
 cognitive ability of , 68 
 decision making in , 481 
 inequity research with , 285 
 LIP in , 68 
 neurophysiology approach in , 63 
 pigeons as , 84–85 
 primates as , 63 
 rats as , 84–85 
 rhesus monkey as , 66 
 role of , 81 
 Animal spirits , 2 
 Anonymity, in game theory 
experiments , 55 
 Anterior cingulate cortex . See Cingulate 
cortex
 Appraisal, as emotion component , 
 233, 236 
 Arbitrary loss function , 104 
 Archimedean continuity , 35 
 “ As if ” model , 9 
 Asset pricing , 24 
 Attention , 441 
 Attitude, as emotion component , 
 233 
 Attractor network model , 491 
 Autism
 empathy and , 260–261 
 ToM and , 199 , 199–200 
 Automaintenance, negative , 182 
 Automaticity assumption , 251 
 Aversion 
 inequity , 285 
 cooperation stabilization by , 
 286–288
 ERC and , 286 
 evolution of , 291 
 Fehr-Schmidt model of , 286 
 loss
 capuchin monkey’s , 81 
 prospect theory and , 151 
 risk
 cognitive ability and , 43 
 constant vs. relative , 133 
 theory of , 24 
 Avoidance 
 experiments on , 186 
 transreinforcer blocking and , 
 187
 two-factor theory of , 186 
 Axiomatic decision theory . See Decision 
theory
 Axiomatic modeling , 21 
 decision theory with , 21 
 marginal utility and , 23 
 specializations of , 24 
 standard utility theory and , 24 
 uncertainty and , 24 
 use value and , 23 
 dopamine and , 24 
 RPE model and , 24 
 degrees of freedom in , 26–27 
 dopamine and , 25 , 27–28 
 hedonic theory vs. , 25 
 tests of , 26 
 utility maximization and , 21–22 
 WARP and , 21–22 , 23–24 
INDEX528
 Axioms
 decision theory’s , 34 
 Archimedean continuity as , 35 
 “ completeness and transitivity ” 
as , 35 
 expected utility theory’s , 147 
 revealed preference and , 3 
 two-stage model and , 503 
 RPE model’s , 27 
 coherent lottery dominance as ,
 29 
 coherent prize dominance as , 29 
 “ no surprise equivalence ” as , 29 
 tests of , 30 
 violation of , 3 
 B 
 “ Bang-bang ” control , 98f 
 Bargaining 
 game theory and , 64–65 
 yard sale , 203–204 
 Basal ganglia 
 circuit schematic of , 408f 
 dopamine neurons in , 407 
 value encoding in , 407 , 514 
 Behavior
 aversively motivated , 175 
 brain and , 5 
 choice
 choice theory and , 16 
 random , 481 
 defi cits in , 5 
 free-operant , 331 
 instrumental , 175 
 neuroeconomic theory of , 47 
 neuroscientifi c study of , 5 
 observed , 64–65 , 66 
 prosocial , 251 
 in social preferences , 217–220 
 Behavioral economics 
 irrationality and , 81 
 model of , 6–7 
 neoclassical economics’ confl icts 
with , 4 
 Behavioral performance , 463 
 Behavioral phylogeny , 290 
 Belief
 dopamine and , 25 
 iterated , 193 
 rewards and , 30 
 Bentham, Jeremy , 175 
 Bias
 of capuchin monkey , 90 , 81 
 in children , 90–91 
 in-group , 269 
 nepotistic , 269 
 ontogenic origins of , 90–91 
 Binti Jua (gorilla) , 275–276 
 Biochemical constraints , 95 
 Biological value , 209 
 cellular level of , 212 
 chemicals and , 212 
 homeostasis and , 212 
 survival and , 212 
 Bodily response , 235 , 243 
 Brain See also specifi c parts
 actor/critic in , 367 
 behavior and , 5 
 damage to 
 decision making and , 6 , 
 209–210
 intellect preservation and , 210 
 somatic marker hypothesis of , 210 
 decision variables in , 464f 
 dopamine pathways of , 512f , 512–513 
 money’s impact on , 16–17 
 rewards and , 15 , 323 
 septal region of , 59 
 social , 15 
 C 
 Capuchin monkey . See also Primates, 
non-human
 as animal model , 86 
 biases of , 81 , 90 
 cognition of , 86–87 
 endowment effect in , 81 
 food sharing by , 290–291 
 loss aversion of , 81 
 price theory and , 81 , 90 
 as rational actor , 88 
 reference dependence of , 81 
 refl ection effect in , 81 
 revealed preferences of , 81 
 token trading by , 81, 87f 
 Cardinality 
 in decision theory , 35 
 in orbitofrontal cortex , 441 
 Cartwright, D. , 36 
 Caudate , 74 
 Cells , 212 
 Charitable giving . See Giving 
 Chemicals , 212 
 Children 
 bias in , 90–91 
 decisions of , 90–91 
 Chimpanzees, food sharing by , 
 290–291 . See also Primates, 
non-human
 Choice , 504–505 . See also Dynamic 
stochastic choice , 
Goal-directed choice , Static 
stochastic choice , Two-stage 
model
 choice theory and , 16 
 consumer , 2 –3 
 mechanism of 
 motor system and , 505–506 
 parietal cortex and , 506 
 monkeys’ , 515–516 
 Nash equilibrium and , 16 
 neuro-cognitive models of 
 actions-based , 441 
 goals-based , 441 
 value modulation and , 441 
 neuron fi ring times and , 71 
 noise in , 503 
 normative utility-based analysis of , 8 
 orbitofrontal cortex and 
 cardinality and , 441 
 neurons in , 441 
 ordinality and , 441 
 studies of , 441 
 value encoding in , 441 
 value representation in , 441 
 perceptual task decision and , 39 
 physical mechanisms of , 9 
 prediction of , 43probability , 503 
 random , 481 
 revealed preference and , 21 
 riskless , 145 
 saccadic control system and , 516f , 516 
 signal propagation in , 517 
 transitivity in , 446 
 in two-stage model , 504–505 
 valuation vs. , 353 
 default actions in , 356–357 
 prospect theory and , 357 
 random utility models and , 358 
 revealed vs. true preferences in , 
 356 , 357 
 welfare and , 355–357 
 variability of , 145 
 Choice theory 
 choice behavior and , 16 
 heuristics in , 4 
 judgement in , 3 
 psychology and , 3–4 
 rewards and , 16 
 Cingulate cortex 
 anterior
 competitive games and , 481 
 trust and , 59 
 posterior
 anatomy of , 452–453 
 imaging studies of , 453 
 neurophysiological studies of, 454 
 subjectivity in , 454 
 Classical conditioning . See Pavlovian 
conditioning
 Club goods , 305 
 Coding
 action
INDEX 529
 FACS and , 242 
 striatum and , 407 
 adaptive , 325 
 value
 basal ganglia and , 514 
 orbitofrontal cortex and , 441 
 thalamic neurons and , 407 
 Cognitive ability , 42 
 of animal models , 68 
 brain damage and , 210 
 degrees of , 42 
 errors and , 43 
 IQ as , 43 
 patience and , 43 
 risk aversion and , 43 
 strategy and , 43 
 tests of , 42 
 trust games and , 43 
 Cognitive hierarchy theory , 195 – 197 
 Cognitive neuroscience , 1 
 Cognitive neuroscience, revolution 
in , 5 
 Coherent lottery dominance , 29 
 Coherent prize dominance , 29 
 Colliculus, superior 
 action preparation in , 72f 
 response selection in , 70 
 Compassion , 254 
 Competition
 anterior cingulate cortex and , 481 
 dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and , 
481, 489f 
 in human game play , 75 
 Completeness , 35 
 Computers
 games on , 43 
 humans’ differences with , 193 
 Conditioned suppression , 182 
 Conditioning , 369 . See also Pavlovian 
conditioning
 Congestion goods , 305 
 Conover, Kent , 8 
 Consolation , 276 
 Consumer choice , 2–3 
 Contingency , 369 
 Contingent reciprocity 
 altruism and , 269 
 in primates , 269 
 Control 
 goal-directed , 175 
 habitual , 175 
 Pavlovian , 175 
 Cooperation
 caudate activity with , 74 
 food sharing and , 291 
 games with 
 human , 75 
 incomplete information , 51 
 prisoner’s dilemma , 56 , 65–66 
 public goods , 56 
 IA and , 286–288 
 medial prefrontal cortex and , 58 
 nucleus accumbens activity with , 74 
 social order and , 18 
 Coordination games , 56 
 Correlative topology , 465f 
 Craniotomy, of primates , 67 
 D 
 Darwin, Charles , 238 
 Deception , 193 
 Decision
 of children , 90–91 
 defi nition of , 463–464 
 economic choice and , 39 
 factors affecting , 40 
 formal model of , 39, 41 
 monetary gambles as , 63 
 neural correlates of , 95 
 ontogenic origins of , 90–91 
 perceptual tasks and , 39 
 response time with , 41 
 under risk vs. uncertainty , 145–146 
 signal quality with , 41 
 social interaction , 63 
 striatum in , 73–74 
 threshold of , 481 
 uncertainty with , 127 
 value-based , 464 
 Decision theory , 21 
 axiomatic , 34 
 independence as , 35 
 revealed preferences method 
and , 34 
 axioms of , 34 
 Archimedean continuity as , 35 
 “ completeness and transitivity ” 
as , 35 
 origin of , 146 
 preference representations in , 35 
 specializations of , 24 
 standard utility theory and , 24 
 uncertainty and , 24 
 use value and , 23 
 utility in 
 cardinal , 35 
 marginal , 23 
 ordinal , 35 
 Decision variables 
 behavioral performance and , 463 
 in brain , 464f 
 correlative topology and , 465f 
 defi nition of , 464 
 direct assessment of 
 incentive compatible model design 
for , 463 
 self-report for , 463 
 simple revealed preferences for , 463 
 generative , 463 
 models of 
 action selection in , 472 
 aggregate , 468 
 axes of , 468 , 469 
 descriptive , 469 
 details of , 463 
 frameworks of , 470f 
 mechanistic , 468, 470f 
 normative , 469 
 parameter-free , 470–471 
 parametric , 470–471 
 phases of , 468f 
 reconstructed , 470–471 
 strategy for , 467 – 468 
 styles of , 463 
 neural correlates of , 463 
 LIP and , 463 
 reinforcement learning and , 463 
 predictive , 463 , 475 
 Decision Making . See also Two-stage 
model
 affective 
 architecture of , 175 
 goal-directed control in , 175 
 habitual control in , 175 
 model-based values in , 175 
 model-free values in , 175 
 Pavlovian control in , 175 
 under ambiguity , 362 
 in animals , 481 
 attractor network , 491 
 biological value and , 209 
 brain damage and , 6 , 209–210 
 in competitive games 
 with anterior cingulate cortex , 481 
 with dorsolateral prefrontal cortex , 
 481, 489f 
 decision threshold and , 481 
 emotion and , 210 
 equilibrium and , 482 
 evolution of , 441 
 imaging studies and , 127 
 matching and , 419 
 models of 
 drift-diffusion , 490f , 490–491 
 leaky competitive accumulator , 491 
 recurrent circuit mechanism of , 481 
 sequential sampling , 490 
 spiking network , 481 
 movement as 
 planning of , 95 
 risk with , 99f , 100f 
 neural basis of , 419 
 optimality and , 482 
 parietal cortex and , 441 
INDEX530
Decision Making . See also Two-stage 
model ( Continued )
 perceptual , 425 
 primate studies of 
 game theory and , 481 
 learning and , 481 
 matching pennies game for , 481 
 Rock-Paper-Scissors for , 481 
 process analysis and , 127 
 random dot motion tasks and 
 reward-dependent learning in 
 computation of returns in , 481 
 matching law in , 481 
 random choice behavior in , 481 
 under risk , 95, 99f , 100f , 364 
 social neuroscience and , 251 
 Degenerate lottery , 27 
 Degrees of freedom, in RPE model , 26–27 
 Depressive realism , 175 
 Descriptive models of decision 
variables , 469 
 Dictator games , 17 , 64–65 , 65f, 287 
 Direct current stimulation , 222 
 Domain differences, in risk , 134 
 Dominance , 29 
 Dopamine
 in basal ganglia , 407 
 belief and , 25 
 concentrations of , 323 
 hedonic theory of , 25 
 measurement technology and , 30 
 midbrain pathways of , 512f , 512–513 
 motivation coding with , 407 
 neurons , 407 
 outcome coding with , 407 
 phasic , 341 
 release function , 27–28 
 reward and , 25 
 adaptive coding in , 325 
 confusions of , 323 
 prediction errors in , 325 
 prediction stimuli and , 323 
 pure signals of , 323 
 as reward mechanism , 73 
 RPE and , 25 , 27–28 
 temporal difference learning and , 
 340f , 341 
 tonic , 331 
 valuation and , 512 , 503 
 Dread , 175 
 Drift-diffusion model , 490f , 490–491 
 Dynamic stochastic choice , 38 , 38 
 E 
 Economic risky choice models , 127 
 Economics
 assumptions of , 81 
 behavioral
 irrationality and , 81 
 model of , 6–7 
 neoclassical economics’ confl icts 
with , 4 
 experimental, 15–16 , 287 
 “ mindless ” , 523 
 neoclassical , 1 
 behavioral economics’ confl icts 
with , 4 
 irrationality and 
 axiomatic approach to , 81 
 behavioral economics approach 
to , 81 
 price theory approach to , 81 
 two-stage model and , 506–507 
 Editing , 150 
 Effi ciency 
 of movement , 101 
 in reward-risk computational model , 
 353
 Electromyography (EMG), emotion 
measurement with , 241–242 
 EMG . See Electromyography 
 Emotion
 affect and , 234 
 basic , 233 
 biological value and , 209 
 categories of , 233 
 components of , 233 
 action tendencies as , 235 , 244 
 affect disposition as , 233 
 appraisal as , 233 , 236 
 attitude as , 233 
 bodily response as , 235 , 243 
 evaluation as , 233 , 236 
 expression as , 235 
 interpersonal stance as , 233 
 mood as , 233 
 preference as , 233 
 reverse inference in , 233 
 subjective experience as , 234 , 
 242
 contagion of , 254 
 decision making and , 210 
 defi nition of , 233 
 dimensions of , 233 
 feeling vs. , 234 
 manipulation of 
 mood indication for , 240 
 pharmacological , 240 
 stimuli for , 239 
 measurement of , 233 
 EMG for , 241–242 
 FACS for , 242 
 reaction time for , 242 
 SCR for , 241 
 subjective report for , 241 
 neural evidence of , 303 
 processes of 
 fairness and , 75 , 77 
 physiology of , 75 
 research on , 233 
 Empathy . See also Theory of mind 
 action understanding and , 251 
 autism spectrum disorder and , 
 260–261 
 defi nition of , 251 
 fairness and , 251 
 individual differences in , 251 
 interoceptive cortex’s role in , 251 
 mentalizing vs. , 260 
 mirror neuron system and , 251 
 modulation of , 251 
 neural evidence of , 303 
 primates’ , 269 
 consolation as , 276 
 wound cleaning as , 276 
 prosocial behavior and , 251 
 psychopathology and , 251 
 shared network hypothesis of , 251 
 study of , 251 
 ToM and , 251 
 Endogenous variables , 120 
 Endowment effect, in capuchin 
monkey , 81 
 Epistemic uncertainty , 131 
 Equilibrium . See also Nash equilibrium 
 decision making , 482 
 individuals in , 18 
 in inspection game , 197 
 in market order , 18 
 mixed strategy , 47 
 quantal response , 47 
 subgame perfect , 49 
 trembling hand , 47 
 in work-shirk game , 197 
 Equity, in reward-risk computational 
model , 353 
 Equity, Reciprocity, and Competition 
(ERC) , 286 
 ERC . See Equity, Reciprocity, and 
Competition
 Evaluation
 as emotion component , 233 , 236 
 posterior cingulate cortex and 
 anatomy of , 452–453 
 imaging studies of , 453 
 neurophysiological studies of, 
454
 subjectivity in, 454 
 risk and , 454 
 Evolution
 of decision making , 441 
 of inequity aversion , 291 
 of prediction , 323 
 of primates , 81 
 of response selection , 70 
 of valuation , 511 
 of value , 441 
INDEX 531
 Exchange, reciprocal 
 prisoner’s dilemma games and , 65 
 trust games and , 65 
 Exogenous variables , 119 
 Expectancy, in reinforcement learning , 
 367
 Expected utility theory , 2 
 Allais paradox as violation of , 148 
 axioms of , 147 
 revealed preference and , 3 
 two-stage model and , 503 
 ordinality of , 508 
 revealed preference’s violation of , 3 
 risk and , 127 , 133 
 subjective , 2 
 Expected value maximization , 146 
 Experience
 primates’ socialization , 282 
 prospect theory and , 154 
 subjective
 emotion component as , 234 , 242 
 learning of , 503 
 Expression 
 basic , 238 
 as emotion component , 235 , 243 
 innateness of , 238 
The Expression of Emotion in Man and 
Animal (Darwin) , 238 
 Extensive form games , 47 
 game theory experiments and , 47 
 Nash equilibrium of , 48 
 solving , 49f 
 subgame perfect equilibrium of , 49 
 two-person , 48f 
 Extinction , 369 
 Eye-tracking , 425 
 F 
 Face-to-face communication , 229 
 Facial Action Coding System (FACS) , 
 242
 Fairness . See also Equity 
 emotional process and , 75 , 77 
 empathy and , 251 
 giving motivated by , 303 
 insula and , 76 
 outcome-based , 216 
 in reward-risk computational model , 
 353
 FCS . See Facial Action Coding System 
 Feeling
 emotion vs. , 234 
 interoceptive cortex’s role in , 251 
 study of , 251 
 Fehr-Schmidt model of IA , 286 
 “ Fellow feeling ” , 253 
 Ferrier, David , 5 
 Food
 sharing of 
 cooperation and , 291 
 primates’ , 290–291 
 social services and , 291 
 social preferences and , 281 
 Framing
 inequity and , 288 
 Pavlovian response and , 175 
 prospect theory and , 145 , 150 
 Free riding , 303 
 Free-operant behavior , 331 
 Friedman, Milton , 3 
 Frontal cortex . See also Orbitofrontal 
cortex , Prefrontal cortex 
 action consequences in , 71 
 valuation in , 505 
 G 
Gambit (software) , 49f 
 Gambles, monetary , 63 
 Game theory , 63 , 193 
 bargaining behavior in , 64–65 
 behavioral
 deception and , 193 
 human-computer differences 
and , 193 
 iterated beliefs and , 193 
 learning and , 193 
 representation in , 193 
 reputation and , 193 
 thinking steps and , 193 
 ToM and , 193 
 criticisms of , 64 
 defi nition of , 64 
 Nash equilibrium in , 64 
 primate decision making studies 
and , 481 
 Game theory experiments , 47 
 coordination games in , 56 
 design of , 47 
 anonymity in , 55 
 instruction in , 54 
 randomization in , 54 
 rewards in , 55 
 extensive form games and , 47 
 normal form games and , 47 
 prisoner’s dilemma games in , 55 
 public goods games in , 55 
 trust games and , 57 
 ultimatum games and , 56 
 Games . See also Extensive form 
games
 altruistic behavior in , 17 
 confounders in , 18 
 coordination , 56 
 dictator , 17 , 64–65 , 65f, 287 
 in experimental economics , 287 
 extensive form , 47 
 game theory experiments and , 47 
 Nash equilibrium of , 48 
 solving , 49f 
 subgame perfect equilibrium 
of , 49 
 two-person , 48f 
 guilt in , 51–52 
 incomplete information , 47 
 cooperation in , 51 
 information set in , 51–52 
 Selter’s Horse as , 53f 
 inspection , 197 
 mixed equilibrium of , 197 
 payoff of , 197t 
 structure of , 65f 
 LUPI , 198f , 197–198 
 matching pennies 
 monkeys playing , 68 
 primate decision making studies 
with , 481 
 random choice behavior in , 481 
 structure of , 65f 
 ToM and , 66 
 mixed strategy 
 equilibrium in , 47 
 primates and , 63 
 ToM and , 66 
 models of , 17 
 neuroeconomic theory of behavior 
in , 47 
 normal form , 47 , 50 
 one-shot , 55 , 193 , 218 
 in primates, non-human , 63 
 prisoner’s dilemma 
 cooperation in , 56 , 65–66 
 in game theory experiments , 55 
 reciprocal exchange in , 65 
 structure of , 55 , 65f 
 single-play , 17–18 
 stage , 17 
 strategic form , 50 
 trust 
 Bayesian , 51–52, 52f 
 cognitive ability and , 43 
 game theory experiments and , 57imaging of , 58 
 in neuroeconomics experiments , 
47
 reciprocal exchange in , 65 
 social order and , 17 
 structure of , 65f 
 ToM in , 58 
 ultimatum , 287 
 game theory experiments and , 56 
 in neuroeconomics experiments , 
 47
 observed behavior in , 64–65 
 structure of , 65f 
 work-shirk
 mixed equilibrium of , 197 
 payoff of , 197t 
INDEX532
 Giving . See also Altruism 
 fairness as , 303 
 motives for , 303 
 neural level evidence on , 303 
 public vs. private , 303 
 as rational choice , 303 
 religion and , 303 
 warm-glow , 303 
 Goal
 altruism and , 303 
 choice models with , 441 
 values , 367 
vs. habit values , 367 
vs. Pavlovian values , 367 
 Goal-directed choice 
 behavioral evidence of , 425 
 defi nition of , 425 
 eye-tracking evidence of , 425 
 neural basis for , 425 
 neurobiological evidence of , 425 
 perceptual decision making 
and , 425 
 model of , 425 
 random dot motion tasks and 
 simple , 425 
 Goods . See Club goods; Congestion 
goods; Private goods; Public 
goods
 Guilt , 51–52 
 H 
 Habits
 goal values vs. , 367 
 Markov decision process 
and , 367 
 Habituation , 369 
 Hedonic theory 
 of dopamine , 25 
 RPE vs. , 25 
 Hedonimeter , 1–2 , 23 
 Helping others , 269 , 282 
 Hernstein’s Matching Law , 470f 
 Heuristics , 4 
Hit 15 (computer game) , 43 
 Homeostasis , 212 
Homo economicus , 82 
 Humans
 computers’ differences with , 193 
 games played by , 63 
 competition in , 75 
 cooperation in , 75 
 research methods for , 72 
 reward mechanism in , 73 
 inequity response of , 285 
 learning and , 331 
 MRI of , 72–73 
 Hunger , 179 
 Hyperscanning , 73 
 I 
 IA . See Inequity aversion 
 Imaging . See also Magnetic resonance 
imaging
 decision making and , 127 
 of human learning , 331 
 inequity and , 288–289 
 in neuroeconomics , 523 
 of posterior cingulate cortex , 453 
 research with , 72 
 of trust games , 58 
 Impulsivity , 175 
 Impunity game , 287 
 Incentive compatible model design , 463 
 Independence , 35 
 Indifference 
 as primate social preference , 269 
 transitivity of , 446 
 Individuals
 empathy and , 251 
 in equilibrium , 18 
 Inequity , 285 
 animal research on , 285 
 brain imaging and , 288–289 
 framing effects and , 288 
 human responses to , 285 
 preference of , 288 
 primates and , 285 
 irrationality of , 296 
 reactions to advantage by , 285 
 reactions to disadvantage by , 285 
 reactions to unfair partners 
by , 285 
 punishment and , 288 
 under risk , 364 
 Inequity aversion (IA) , 285 
 cooperation stabilization by , 286–288 
 ERC and , 286 
 evolution of , 291 
 Fehr-Schmidt model of , 286 
 In-group bias, in primates , 269 
 Inspection game 
 mixed equilibrium of , 197 
 payoff of , 197t 
 structure of , 65f 
 Instrumental action 
 Instrumental conditioning , 369 
 Insula
 fairness and , 76 
 punishment and , 215 
 Intelligence quotient (IQ) 
 choice prediction and , 43 
 as cognitive ability , 43 
 Interoceptive cortex 
 empathy in , 251 
 feeling in , 251 
 Iowa Gambling Task , 354 
 IQ . See Intelligence quotient 
 Irrationality
 axiomatic approach to , 81 
 behavioral economics approach 
to , 81 
 inequity and , 296 
 price theory approach to , 81 
 of primates , 296 
 J 
 Judgement, in choice theory , 3 
 K 
 Kahneman, Daniel , 3 , 4 
 Keynes, John Maynard , 2 
 Kin selection , 269 
 L 
 Lateral intraparietal area (LIP) 
 action selection in , 463 
 in animal models , 68 
 matching behavior in , 463 
 subjective desirability in , 70f 
 Leaky competitive accumulator 
model , 491 
 Learning . See also Reinforcement 
learning , Reward-dependent 
learning
 behavioral game theory and , 193 
 fi ctive , 201 
 movement planning and , 95 
 optimal rate of , 331 
 primate decision making 
studies and , 481 
 social preferences and , 193 
 subjective value and , 503 
 temporal difference , 331 
 in valuation , 503 
 Linear nonlinear probabilistic 
models , 470f 
 LIP . See Lateral intraparietal area 
 Loss aversion 
 of capuchin monkey , 81 
 prospect theory and , 151 
 Lottery
 coherent dominance of , 29 
 defi nition of , 27 
 degenerate , 27 
 LUPI game , 197–198, 198f 
 M 
 Macaque . See Rhesus monkey 
 Machiguenga culture , 288 
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 
 for human research , 72–73 
 reinforcement learning and , 463 
 of striatum , 389 
 Mandatory provision , 303 
 Market order , 15 , 18 
INDEX 533
 Markov decision process , 367 
 action selection in , 367 
 goal values in , 367 
 habit values in , 367 
 Pavlovian values in , 367 
 Masochism , 183–184 
 Matching
 decision making and , 419 
 law of , 8 
 Hernstein’s , 470f 
 modeling frameworks and , 470f 
 reward-dependent learning and , 481 
 LIP and , 463 
 Matching pennies game 
 monkeys playing , 68 
 primate decision making studies 
with , 481 
 random choice behavior in , 481 
 structure of , 65f 
 ToM and , 66 
 Maximizing expected gain (MEG) , 101 
 Maze , 177f 
 Measurement 
 of dopamine , 30 
 emotion , 233 
 EMG for , 241–242 
 FACS for , 242 
 reaction time for , 242 
 SCR for , 241 
 subjective report for , 241 
 of risk attitude , 136 
 of value function , 155 
 Mechanistic models, of decision 
variable , 468, 470f
 Mediation, primate policing with , 274 
 MEG . See Maximizing expected gain 
 Melioration, optimization vs. , 481 
 Mentalizing
 defi nition of , 254 
 empathy vs. , 260 
The Methodology of Positive Economics
(Friedman) , 3 
 Microdialysis , 389 
 Midbrain dopamine pathways , 512f , 
 512–513
 Mirror neuron system , 251 
 Modality independence , 441 
 Models See specifi c models
 Money
 brain and , 16–17 
 as social contrivance , 17 
 Monkeys . See also Animal models , 
 Primates, non-human 
 choice , 515–516 
 matching pennies game played by , 68 
 motor system of , 506f 
 neuron fi ring rates in , 200–201 
 revealed preferences of , 40 
 risk-seeking by , 455 
 Rock-Paper-Scissors played by , 68 
 species of , 85–86 
 Mood
 as emotion component , 233 
 emotion manipulation and , 240 
 Moral dilemma tasks , 252 
 Motives
 coding of , 407 
 for giving , 303 
 Motor system 
 choice mechanism and , 505–506 
 errors in , 96 
 of monkey , 506f 
 movement planning and , 95, 104 
 sensory-
 neurons of , 67 
 of primates, non-human , 63 
 visuosaccadic system in , 66–67 
 Movement
 consequences of 
 optimal performance model of , 99 
 optimization of , 95 
 as decision making under risk , 95, 
99f , 100f 
 effi ciency of , 101 
 MEG and , 101 
 planning of 
 arbitrary loss function and , 104 
 “ bang-bang ” control in , 98f 
 biochemical constraints and , 95 
 decision making and , 95 
 learning vs. computing in , 95 
 model of , 97f 
 motoradaptation in , 104 
 motor decisions and , 95 
 motor errors in , 96 
 noise and , 95 
 optimization as , 95 
 perceptual decision in , 95 
 under risk , 95, 101f , 102f 
 strategies of , 101f , 103f 
 timing of , 102f , 103–104 
 MRI . See Magnetic resonance imaging 
 Multiple selves model , 503 
 N 
 Nash equilibrium 
 choice behavior and , 16 
 of extensive form games , 48 
 in game theory , 64 
 modeling frameworks and , 470f 
 Rock-Paper-Scissors and , 47 
 of Selter’s Horse , 53 
 Negative automaintenance , 182 
 Neoclassical economics , 1 
 behavioral economics’ confl icts 
with , 4 
 irrationality and 
 axiomatic approach to , 81 
 behavioral economics approach 
to , 81 
 price theory approach to , 81 
 Neoclassical revolution , 3 
 Nepotistic bias, in primates , 269 
 Neural processes 
 model selection with , 121 
 of social preferences , 215 
 testability of , 120 
 Neuroeconomics , 525 
 axiomatic , 21 
 emergence of , 1 
 endogenous variables in , 120 
 exogenous variables in , 119 
 experiments on , 47 
 analysis of , 58 
 design of , 47 
 trust games in , 47 
 framework of , 116 
 game-playing behavior and , 47 
 imaging studies in , 523 
 maturation of , 524–525 
 neural processes and 
 model selection with , 121 
 testability of , 120 
 origins of , 1 , 209 
 predictions of , 123 
 psychological-neural correlations 
and , 523–524 
 relevance of , 115–117 
 skepticism of , 118 
 social neuroscience and , 251 
 trends in , 1 
 ultimatum games in , 47 
 Neuroimaging , 10–11 
 Neurons 
 adaptation of , 441 
 dopamine , 407 
 fi ring times of , 71 , 200–201 
 mirror system of , 251 
 in orbitofrontal cortex , 441 
 of sensory-motor system , 67 
 thalamic , 407 
 Neuroscience . See Social neuroscience 
 Newsome, William , 5–7 
 “ No surprise equivalence ” , 29 
 Noise
 in choice , 503 
 movement planning and , 95 
 Norepinephrine , 331 
 Normal form games , 47, 50 
 Normative economic theory , 8 
 Normative models, of decision 
variables , 469 
 Normative utility analysis , 8 
 Nucleus accumbens , 74 
INDEX534
 O 
 Obtained subjective value , 503 
 “ On the neural computation of utility ” 
(Shizgal and Connover) , 8 
 One-shot games , 55 , 193 , 218 
 Optimal performance , 99 
 Optimal policy , 44 
 Optimization
 decision making and , 482 
 melioration vs. , 481 
 of movement consequences , 95 
 movement planning as , 95 
 Orbitofrontal cortex 
 cardinality and , 441 
 neurons in , 441 
 ordinality and , 441 
 studies of , 441 
 value encoding in , 441 
 value representation in , 441 
 Ordinality 
 in decision theory , 35 
 of expected utility theory , 508 
 in orbitofrontal cortex , 441 
 Outcome revaluation , 369 
 Oxytocin , 10 
 P 
 Pain , 183 
 Parameter-free model, of decision 
variables , 470–471 
 Parameters
 estimation of , 463 
 in model designs , 469 
 Parametric model, of decision variables , 
 470–471
 Pareto , 23 
 Parietal cortex 
 attention and , 441 
 choice mechanism and , 506 
 decision making and , 441 
 modality independence and , 441 
 signal modulation in , 441 
 Patience , 43 
 Pavlovian conditioning 
 defi nition of , 369 
 goal values vs. , 367 
 tone-food pairing in , 367–368 
 Pavlovian control , 175 
 Pavlovian response 
 altruistic punishment and , 175 
 conditioned suppression and , 182 
 depressive realism and , 175 
 dread and , 175 
 framing effects and , 175 
 impulsivity and , 175 
 methodology and , 175 
 masochism and , 183–184 
 pain and , 183 
 negative automaintenance and , 182 
 PIT and , 181 
 Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) , 
 181 , 371 
 Perceptual decisions , 39 
 economic choice and , 39 
 formal model of , 39, 41 
 goal-directed choice and , 425 
 model of , 425 
 movement planning and , 95 
 random dot motion tasks and, 427 
 Pharmacological manipulation 
 of emotion , 240 
 of risk preference , 10 
 Pigeons , 84–85 
 PIT . See Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 
 Policing, primates’ , 269 
 altruistic punishment as , 273–274 
 mediation in , 274 
 retaliation as , 273 
 Positron emission tomography (PET) , 
 72 , 389 
 Posterior cingulate cortex . See Cingulate 
cortex
 Prediction 
 of action , 263f 
 decision variables and , 463 , 475 
 deterministic , 472 
 learning and , 331–332 
 of neuroeconomics , 123 
 out-of-sample , 123 
 probabilistic , 472, 473f 
 reinforcement learning and , 367 
 reward 
 brain structures and , 323 
 errors in , 323 , 325 
 evolution of , 323 
 pure signals of , 323 
 stimuli of , 323 
 temporal difference learning and , 338, 
339f 
 Preference . See also Revealed 
preferences , Risk preference , 
 Social preferences 
 as emotion component , 233 
 Rawlsian , 217 
 representations of , 35 
 source , 154 
 strength , 38 
 transitivity of , 446 
 true vs. revealed , 356 , 357 
 Prefrontal cortex 
 dorsolateral , 481, 489f 
 medial , 9 
 cooperation and , 58 
 in ToM , 58 
 valuation in , 515 
 punishment and , 215 
 Preparatory responses , 181 
 Price theory 
 capuchin monkey and , 81 , 90 
 irrationality and , 81 
 Pricing, asset , 24 
 Primates, non-human . See also Animal 
models
 altruism in , 269 
 in-group bias with , 269 
 nepotistic bias with , 269 
 reciprocity in , 269 
 as animal models , 63 
 cognitive ability of , 68 
 craniotomy of , 67 
 decision making studies on 
 game theory and , 481 
 learning and , 481 
 matching pennies game for , 481 
 Rock-Paper-Scissors for , 481 
 empathy in , 269 
 consolation as , 276 
 wound cleaning as , 276 
 evolution of , 81 
 food sharing by , 290–291 
 games in , 63 
 LIP and , 68, 70f 
 mixed-strategy , 63 
 inequity and , 285 
 neurophysiology approach with , 63 
 policing by , 269 
 altruistic punishment as , 273–274 
 mediation in , 274 
 retaliation as , 273 
 reinforcement learning in , 367 
 risk-seeking by , 455 
 sensory-motor system of , 63 
 neurons of , 67 
 visuosaccadic system in , 66–67 
 social preferences in , 269 
 cognitive basis of , 269 
 experimental protocol with , 277t 
 food and , 281 
 helping others as , 269 , 282 
 indifference as , 269 
 research on , 269 
 socialization experience in , 282 
 theories on , 269 
 taxonomic tree of , 289f 
 Prisoner’s dilemma 
 cooperation in , 56 , 65–66 
 in game theory experiments , 55 
 reciprocal exchange in , 65 
 structure of , 55 , 65f 
 Private goods , 304 
 Prize
 coherent dominance of , 29 
 defi nition of , 27 
 Procedural rationality , 3 
INDEX 535
 Process analysis , 127 
 Prosocial behavior , 251 
 Prospect theory , 9 
 Allais paradox and , 149 
 ambiguity aversion and , 154 
 cash equivalents and , 145 
 cumulative , 145, 153 
 editing and , 150 
 excitation and, 145 
 experience and , 154 
 extensions of , 145 
 framing and , 150 
 historical context of , 145 
 loss aversion and , 151 
 neural correlates and 
 challenges with , 145 
 framing effects and , 145 
 reference dependence and , 145 
 value function an , 145 
 parameterization of , 145 
 parametric forms , 157f 
 probability weighting distortions , 145 
 risk attitudes and , 149 
 risk preference and , 127 
 riskless choice , 145 
 source preference and , 154 
 two-stage model of , 153 
 valuation vs. choice and , 357 
 value function and , 149 , 152 
 curvature of , 152 
 measurement of , 155 
 neurologic correlates of , 145 
 weighting function and , 149 , 155 
 Psychology
 choice theory and , 3–4 
 neural correlations with , 523–524 
 Psychometric-neurometric match , 5–6 
 Psychopathology, empathy vs. , 251 
 Public goods 
 changing level of , 303 
 cooperation in , 56 
 defi nition of , 303 
 in game theory experiments , 55 
 insuffi cient level of , 303 
 observed behavior in , 66 
 optimal level of , 303 
 structure of , 55–56 
 Punishment
 as altruism , 175 
 anticipation of , 215 
 inequity and , 288 
 insula and , 215 
 prefrontal cortex and , 215 
 primate policing with , 273–274 
 reward circuitry and , 215 
 threat of , 220f 
 Pure altruism model 
 defi nition of , 303–304 
 failure of , 307 
 free riding and vs. , 303 
 mandatory provision and , 303 
 public goods and 
 changing level of , 303 
 insuffi cient levels of , 303 
 optimal level of , 303 
 taxation and , 303 
 Q 
 Quantal response equilibrium , 47 , 
 196–197
 R 
 Random choice behavior , 481 
 Random dot motion tasks , 427
 Random utility models , 37 , 358 
 Random walk 
 dynamic stochastic choice and , 38 
 with endogenous barriers , 43 
 signal quality and , 45 
 Randomization, in game theory 
experiments , 54 
 Rationality
 of capuchin monkey , 88 
 giving as , 303 
 procedural , 3 
 Rats
 as animal model , 84–85 
 reinforcement learning in , 367 
 Rawlsian preferences , 217 
 Reaction time 
 emotion measurement with , 242 
 value and , 323 
 Realism, depressive , 175 
 Reciprocity 
 contingent
 altruism and , 269 
 primates’ , 269 
 menu-based , 216 
 personality-based , 216–217 
 prisoner’s dilemma games and , 65 
 trust games and , 65 
 Reconstructed model, of decision 
variables , 470–471 
 Recurrent circuit mechanism , 481 
 Reference dependence 
 of capuchin monkey , 81 
 prospect theory and , 145 
 Refl ection effect, in capuchin monkey , 81 
 Refl ex, action vs. , 367 
 Reinforcement learning 
 acetylcholine and , 331 
 actor/critic in , 367 
 basic principles of , 369 
 challenges to , 331 
 decision variables and , 463 
 expectancy in , 367 
 historical background on , 331 
 Markov decision process , 367 
 action selection in , 367 
 goal values in , 367 
 habit values in , 367 
 Pavlovian values in , 367 
 model-based , 367 
 model-free , 367 
 modeling frameworks and , 470f 
 MRI correlates of , 463 
 neural basis of 
 primates’ , 367 
 rats’ , 367 
 reward expectation and , 367 
 state-value representation in , 367 
 neural data on , 331 
 norepinephrine and , 331 
 optimal action selection in , 331 
 optimal rate of , 331 
 prediction and , 331–332 , 367 
 refl ex vs. action and , 367 
 reinforcement in , 367 
 Rescorla-Wagner model of , 331 
 response vigor , 331 
 reward and , 367 
 temporal difference , 331 
 dopamine response in , 340f , 341 
 prediction errors in , 338, 339f 
 tonic dopamine in , 331 
 two-stage model and , 505 
 values in 
 goal vs. habit , 367 
 Pavlovian vs. goal , 367 
 Relative subjective value , 503 
 Religion , 303 
 Representation 
 in game theory , 193 
 preference , 35 
 state-value , 367 
 value , 441 
 Reputation , 193 
 Rescorla-Wagner model , 331 
 Research 
 on emotion , 233 
 on humans 
 with games , 72 
 with MRI , 72–73 
 on inequity , 285 
 on orbitofrontal cortex , 441 
 on primates’ social preferences , 
269 
 on striatum 
 with microdialysis , 389 
 with MRI , 389 
 with PET , 389 
 with voltammetry , 389 
 Response selection, evolution of , 70 
 Response time , 41 
INDEX536
 Response vigor , 331 
 Retaliation, as primate policing , 273 
 Returns, computation of , 481 
 Revealed preferences , 3 . See also Weak 
Axiom of Revealed Preference 
 axiomatic decision theory , 34 
 of capuchin monkey , 81 
 choice and , 21 
 decision theory and , 21 
 decision variable assessment with , 
 463
 expected utility theory axioms and , 3 
 model of , 6 
 of monkey , 40 
 progressive research program of , 24 
 stationarity in , 467 
 true preferences vs. , 356 , 357 
 Reverse inference, as emotion 
component , 233 
 Reward 
 belief and , 30 
 brain and , 15 
 choice theory and , 16 
 concepts of , 323 
 conditioned vs. unconditioned , 
 512–513
 confusions of , 323 
 in game theory experiments , 55 
 mechanisms of 
 dopamine system as , 25 , 73 
 human , 73 
 parallelism of , 227f 
 prediction and 
 brain structures and , 323 
 errors in , 323 , 325 
 evolution of , 323 
 pure signals of , 323 
 stimuli of , 323 
 striatum and , 407 
 punishment and , 215 
 reinforcement learning and , 367
 risk and , 323 
 utility and , 323 
 Reward prediction error (RPE) , 24 
 axioms of , 27 
 coherent lottery dominance as , 29 
 coherent prize dominance as , 29 
 “ no surprise equivalence ” as , 29 
 tests of , 30 
 defi nition of , 28 
 degrees of freedom in , 26–27 
 dopamine and , 25 , 27–28 
 hedonic theory vs. , 25 
 subjective value and , 503 
 tests of , 26 
 Reward-dependent learning 
 computation of returns in , 481 
 matching law in , 481 
 random choice behavior in , 481 
 Reward-risk computational model 
 ambiguity in , 353 
 effi ciency in , 353 
 equity in , 353 
 Rhesus monkey . See also Primates, 
non-human
 as animal model , 66 
 characteristics of , 85–86 
 Risk . See also Reward-risk 
computational model 
 attitude toward 
 decision tree for , 140f 
 measurement of , 136 
 pattern of , 148 
 prospect theory and , 149 
 risk taking and , 133 
 risk-return models and , 127 
 aversion to 
 cognitive ability and , 43 
 constant vs. relative , 133 
 theory of , 24 
 decision making under , 99f , 100f , 
 145–146 , 364 
 domain differences in , 134 
 evaluative signals and , 454 
 expected utility theory and , 133 
 inequity under , 364 
 movement under , 101f , 102f , 95 
 primates seeking , 455 
 reward and , 323 
 valuation under , 353 
 Risk preference 
 historical context of , 127 
 economic risky choice models 
and , 127 
 expected utility theory in , 127 
 expected value in , 127 
 prospect theory and , 127 
 risk-return models in , 127 
 pharmacological manipulation of , 10 
 Risk-return model 
 risk attitudesand , 127 
 risk preference and , 127 
 Rock-Paper-Scissors 
 monkeys playing , 68 
 Nash equilibrium and , 47 
 primate decision making studies 
with , 481 
 RPE . See Reward prediction error 
 S 
 Saccadic system . See Visuosaccadic 
system
 Samuelson Condition , 305 
 Samuelson, Paul , 2 , 21 
 Satiety, sensory-specifi c , 177 
 Schadenfreude , 263–264 
 SCR . See Skin conductive response 
 Self-interest, social preferences vs. , 
 215–216
 Selfi shness , 64 . See also Pure altruism 
model
 Self-report , 463 
 Selter’s Horse 
 as incomplete information game , 53f 
 Nash equilibrium of , 53 
 Sensory-motor system 
 neurons of , 67 
 of primates, non-human , 63 
 visuosaccadic system in , 66–67 
 Sensory-specifi c satiety , 177 
 Sequential sampling model , 490 
 Shared network hypothesis, of empathy , 
 251
 Shizgal, Peter , 8 
 Signal detection theory , 5 
 Signal modulation, in parietal cortex , 441 
 Signal propagation , 517 
 Signal quality , 44 
 decisions with , 41 
 random walks and , 45 
 Single-play games , 17–18 
 Skin conductive response (SCR) , 241 
 Smith, Adam , 1 , 253 
 Social brain , 15 
 Social dilemma tasks , 252 
 Social environment , 441 
 Social interaction , 63 
 Social neuroscience , 251 
 decision making and , 251 
 moral dilemma tasks and , 252 
 neuroeconomics and , 251 
 social dilemma tasks and , 252 
 Social order , 15 
 cooperation and , 18 
 trust games in , 17 
 Social preferences 
 anticipation of , 215 
 automaticity assumption and , 251 
 behaviors in , 217–220 
 face-to-face communication and , 229 
 formal theories of , 216 
 initial conditions and , 193 
 learning and , 193 
 neural circuitry of , 215 
 one-shot games and , 193 , 218 
 primates’ , 269 
 cognitive basis of , 269 
 experimental protocol with , 277t 
 food and , 281 
 helping others as , 269 , 282 
 indifference as , 269 
 research on , 269 
 socialization experience in , 282 
 theories on , 269 
INDEX 537
 punishment in 
 altruism and , 175 
 anticipation of , 215 
 inequity and , 288 
 insula and , 215 
 prefrontal cortex and , 215 
 primate policing with , 273–274 
 reward circuitry and , 215 
 threat of , 220f 
 self-interest vs. , 215–216 
 trust and , 215 
 Social services, food sharing for , 291 
 Socialization , 282 
 Somatic marker hypothesis , 210–211
 Source preference , 154 
 Spiking network model , 481 
 St. Petersburg paradox 
 payoff distribution for , 128f 
 resolution of , 128 
 Stage games , 17 
 Stance, interpersonal, as emotion 
component , 233 
 Static stochastic choice , 36 
 economic theories of , 36 
 models of , 37 
 approximate maximization and , 37 
 strength preference in , 38 
 utility function in , 37 
 random utility models and , 37 
 Stationarity, in simple revealed 
preferences , 467 
 Stimuli
 emotion manipulation , 239 
 prediction , 323 
 unconditional , 181 
 Stimulus habituation , 369 
 Stochasticity, in subjective value , 503 
 Strategic form games , 50 
 Strategies
 cognitive ability and , 43 
 for decision variable models , 
467 , 468 
 of movement , 101f , 103f 
 Strength preference , 38 
 Striatum
 action coding in , 407 
 altruism and , 74–75 
 decision making and , 73–74 
 function of , 389 
 research on 
 microdialysis for , 389 
 MRI for , 389 
 PET for , 389 
 voltammetry for , 389 
 reward prediction in , 407 
 structure of , 389 
 subjective value in , 389 
 valuation in , 505 , 514–515 
 Subjective experience 
 as emotion component , 234 , 242 
 learning of , 503 
 Subjective reports, emotion 
measurement with , 241 
 Subjective value 
 defi nition of , 503 
 obtained , 503 
 relative , 503 
 RPE and , 503 
 stochasticity in , 503 
 in striatum , 389 
 Subjectivity, in posterior cingulate 
cortex, 454 
 Substitution rate , 23–24 
 Superior colliculus . See Colliculus, 
superior
 Support , 27 
 Survival , 212 
 Sympathy , 254 
 T 
 Taxation , 303 
 Temporal difference , 331 
 dopamine response in , 340f , 341 
 learning , 331 
 prediction errors in , 338, 339f 
 Theory of mind (ToM) 
 autism and , 199 , 199–200 
 behavioral game theory and , 193 
 empathy and , 251 
 medial prefrontal cortex in , 58 
 in mixed strategy games , 66 
 neural components of , 199 
 study of 
 history of , 251 
 neural foundations of , 251 
 in trust games , 58 
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
(Smith) , 253 
 Thinking steps , 193 
 Timing, of movement , 102f 
 TMS . See Transcranial magnetic 
stimulation
 Token trading, by capuchin monkey , 
 87f , 81 
 ToM . See Theory of mind 
 Transcranial magnetic stimulation 
(TMS) , 4 , 10–11 
 Transitivity 
 choice in , 446 
 completeness and , 35 
 of preferences , 446 
 Transreinforcer blocking , 187 
 Trembling hand equilibrium , 47 
 Trust 
 anterior paracingulate cortex 
and , 59 
 septal brain region and , 59 
 social preferences and , 215 
 Trust games 
 Bayesian , 51–52 , 52f
 cognitive ability and , 43 
 game theory experiments and , 57 
 imaging of , 58 
 in neuroeconomics experiments , 47 
 reciprocal exchange in , 65 
 social order and , 17 
 structure of , 65f 
 ToM in , 58 
 Tversky, Amos , 3 , 4 
 Two-stage model 
 alternatives to 
 choice probability as , 503 
 multiple selves model as , 503 
 as “ back-pocket ” model of 
human decision making , 
 503–504
 basic principles of , 504–505 , 506 ,
 519 
 choice in , 504–505 
 monkeys’ , 515–516 
 saccadic control system and , 
 516f , 516 
 signal propagation in , 517 
 economic theory and , 506–507 
 expected utility theory and 
 Allais paradox and , 508 
 axioms of , 503 
 ordinality in , 508 
 welfare and , 508 
 historical background of , 505–506 
 reinforcement learning and , 505 
 subjective value and 
 defi nition of , 503 
 obtained , 503 
 relative , 503 
 RPE and , 503 
 stochasticity in , 503 
 unspecifi ed components of , 
519–520
 valuation in , 504–505 
 basal ganglia and , 514 
 dopamine and , 512 , 503 
 evolution of , 511 
 learning in , 503 
 medial prefrontal cortex 
and , 515 
 striatum and , 514–515 
 U 
 Ultimatum games , 287 
 game theory experiments and , 56 
 in neuroeconomics experiments , 47 
 observed behavior in , 64–65 
 structure of , 65f 
INDEX538
 Uncertainty , 127 
 decision theory and , 24 
 decision making under , 145–146 
 degrees of , 131 
 quantifying , 132 
 resolution of , 127 
 types of , 131 
 Unconditional stimuli , 181 
 Use value, marginal utility vs. , 23 
 Utility
 cardinal , 35 
 choice analysis with normative , 8 
 computation of , 40 
 function , 37 
 marginal , 23 
 maximization of , 21–22 
 meaninglessness of , 23 
 mean-variance , 355 
 ordinal , 35 
 random , 37 , 358 
 reward and , 323 
 static stochastic choice and , 37 
 Utility theory . See also Expectedutility 
theory
 criticisms of , 64 
 standard , 24 
 V 
 Valuation , 504–505 . See also Evaluation 
 basal ganglia and , 514 
 choice vs. , 353 
 default actions in , 356–357 
 prospect theory and , 357 
 random utility models and , 358 
 revealed vs. true preferences in , 
356–357
 welfare and , 355–357 
 computation of , 353 
 dopamine and , 503 , 512 
 as emotion component , 233 , 236 
 evolution of , 511 
 in frontal cortex , 505 
 Iowa Gambling Task and , 354 
 learning in , 503 
 mean-variance model of , 354 
 mean-variance utility and , 355 
 medial prefrontal cortex and , 515 
 modality of , 441 
 outcome , 369 
 reward-risk computational model of , 
 353 
 under risk , 353 
 social environment and , 441 
 in striatum , 505 , 514–515 
 subjective value and , 503 
 in two-stage model , 504–505 
 Value . See also Subjective value 
 biological , 209 
 cellular level of , 212 
 chemicals and , 212 
 homeostasis and , 212 
 survival and , 212 
 coding of 
 basal ganglia and , 514 
 orbitofrontal cortex and , 441 
 thalamic neurons and , 407 
 encoding of 
 orbitofrontal cortex and , 441 
 thalamic neurons and , 407 
 evolution of , 441 
 goal , 367
 habit , 367 
 Markov decision process and ,
 367
 modulation of , 441 
 offer , 444 
 parietal cortex and 
 attention and , 441 
 decision making and , 441 
 modality independence and , 441 
 signal modulation in , 441 
 Pavlovian , 367 
 representation of , 441 
 reward and , 323 
 risk preference and , 127 
 transitivity of , 446 
 use , 23 
 Value function 
 curvature of , 152 
 measurement of , 155 
 prospect theory and , 149 , 152 
 prospect theory neural correlates 
and , 145 
 Visuosaccadic system , 66–67, 516f 
 Voltammetry , 389 
 W 
 Warm-glow model 
 of altruism , 303 
 of giving , 303 
 WARP . See Weak Axiom of Revealed 
Preference 
 Weak Axiom of Revealed Preference 
(WARP) , 2 , 21–24 
The Wealth of Nations (Smith) , 1 
 Weighting function , 149 , 155 
 Welfare 
 choice vs. valuation and , 355–357 
 expected utility theory and , 508 
 Work-shirk game 
 mixed equilibrium of , 197 
 payoff of , 197t 
 Wound cleaning, as primate empathy , 
 276
 Y 
 Yard sale bargaining game , 203–204 
	Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Y