05-Characterization of Textile Grade Novel Bauhinia Vahlii Fiber

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Characterization of Textile Grade Novel Bauhinia
Vahlii Fiber
Goutam Bar & Kavita Chaudhary
To cite this article: Goutam Bar & Kavita Chaudhary (2023) Characterization of Textile
Grade Novel Bauhinia Vahlii Fiber, Journal of Natural Fibers, 20:1, 2143464, DOI:
10.1080/15440478.2022.2143464
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2022.2143464
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Characterization of Textile Grade Novel Bauhinia Vahlii Fiber
Goutam Bar a,b and Kavita Chaudharya
aDepartment of Design, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, Rajasthan, India; bDepartment of Textile Design, National 
Institute of Fashion Technology, Bhubaneswar, India
ABSTRACT
Increasing demand for bio-degradable, eco-friendly, and sustainable textile 
products to confront environmental pollution accelerates the research on 
natural fibers. Researchers are also in search of novel natural fibers to be used 
in different textile products. The present study attempts to extract textile- 
grade novel Bauhinia vahlii fibers (BVFs) from the Bauhinia vahlii (BV) 
plant bark. Textile grade BVFs were obtained by treating the BV plant 
bark with 15% (w/w) sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) at 95°C for 2 h, 
followed by manual fiber extraction. The extracted BVFs were analyzed 
for physical, chemical, morphological, structural, mechanical, and thermal 
characteristics. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and chemi-
cal analysis revealed that the extracted fiber contains 75.8% holocellu-
lose and 13.7% lignin. The physical analysis demonstrated that BVFs have 
10.5% moisture content, 1.47 gm/cm3 fiber density, and 15.77 microns 
average fiber fineness. X-ray diffraction (×RD) confirmed that BVFs have 
56% crystallinity. Thermogravimetric study revealed that the BVFs could 
be thermally stable up to 233.4°C. Outcomes of all the analyzes indicate 
that the extracted fiber can be used to convert them into yarn by 
blending with some short-staple fiber.
摘要
为应对环境污染, 人们对可生物降解、环保和可持续的纺织品的需求不断 
增加, 这加速了对天然纤维的研究. 研究人员也在寻找用于不同纺织产品的 
新型天然纤维. 本研究试图从紫荆（BV）植物树皮中提取纺织级新型紫荆 
纤维（BVF）. 通过在95°C下用15%（w/w）氢氧化钠溶液（NaOH）处理 
BV植物树皮2小时, 然后手动提取纤维, 获得纺织级BVF. 对提取的BVF进行 
物理、化学、形态、结构、机械和热特性分析. 傅里叶变换红外光谱和化 
学分析表明, 提取的纤维含有75.8%的全纤维素和13.7%的木质素. 物理分 
析表明, BVF的含水量为10.5%, 纤维密度为1.47 gm/cm3, 平均纤维细度为 
15.77微米。X射线衍射（XRD）证实BVF具有56%的结晶度. 热重分析表明, 
BVF的热稳定性可达233.4°C. 所有分析的结果表明, 提取的纤维可以通过与 
一些短纤维混合而转化为纱线.
KEYWORDS 
Bauhinia vahlii fiber; 
morphological 
characterization; x-ray 
diffraction; thermal analysis; 
FTIR analysis; tensile strength
关键词 
紫荆纤维; 形态表征; X射 
线衍射; 热分析; 分析; 抗拉 
强度
Introduction
The story of natural fibers used by humans dates back to prehistoric times to endure adverse weather 
conditions. Until around a century ago, the only fibers used by human beings were natural to beautify 
the environment and for clothing. Humans made advancements with time in the realm of textiles and 
developed synthetic fibers. In the last 50 years, the production of synthetic fibers has increased 
significantly and captured the textile market for their low cost, uniform quality, and excellent 
durability. However, synthetic fibers are non-biodegradable and provide less comfort compared to 
natural fibers. Moreover, issues like increasing carbon footprint, climatic changes, and environmental 
CONTACT Goutam Bar goutam.bar@nift.ac.in Department of Textile Design, National Institute of Fashion Technology, 
Bhubaneswar, India
JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 
2022, VOL. 20, NO. 1, 2143464 
https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2022.2143464
© 2022 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), 
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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pollution due to manufacturing, usage, and disposal of excessive synthetic textile materials have 
emerged (Ramasamy and Subramanian 2021). Since then, customer demand for biodegradable 
and sustainable textiles has grown considerably. Manufacturers are thus focusing on products 
manufactured from bio-based renewable resources, i.e., from natural fibers. Plants are the 
primary source of natural fibers. Researchers are also working on different natural fiber-based 
products and searching for novel plant-based natural fibers to neutralize people’s growing 
concerns about sustainability.
Bauhinia vahlii (BV) is a fast-growing, woody climber of the legume family. It is also among the 
most abundant Indian bauhinia species, as shown in Figure 1. Bauhinia recemosa, the other name of 
the BV plant, is generally found in the world’s warmer regions, mainly in Asia, Africa, and South 
America (Chauhan and Saklani 2013). In India, this plant is native to the sub-Himalayan region as well 
as Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal. Bauhinia vahlii plant leaves are 
used to make plates and bark to make simple household products by the tribal people of Odisha for 
their livelihood. Leaves and bark extract of the BV plant have potential antioxidant and antimicrobial 
properties (Bar and Bar 2020).
Lignocellulosic fibers are a naturally occurring composite in which cellulosic fibrils are embedded 
in the lignin matrix. Besides cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, pectin, and wax are the other significant 
components of lignocellulosic fibers (John and Thomas 2008). Hemicellulose is highly hydrophilic and 
undergoes easy dissolution under alkaline conditions. Lignin is considered as a three-dimensional 
copolymer comprising aliphatic and aromatic compounds. The main problem with lignin chemistry 
is that it cannot be isolated to its native state. It is entirely amorphous and hydrophobic and becomes 
soluble under hot alkaline conditions (Olesen and Plackett 1999). Conventionally, lignocellulosic 
and bast fibers were extracted through the water retting process. Dew retting is also an alternative 
and sustainable way of lignocellulosic fiber extraction. However, due to longer time requirements 
and water pollution problems in water retting, researchers developed alternative fiber extraction 
methods, including decortication, post decortication cleaning, enzymatic retting, chemical retting, 
etc. To get better fiber quality and higher fiber yield, single or multiple methods can be employedto 
extract the lignocellulosic fiber depending on the fiber type. In the case of fibers having higher lignin 
content, to scrape away excess lignin from the fiber, degumming is carried out to convert them into 
a textile-grade fiber. Degumming includes alkali, acid, and emulsion treatments (Kale, Alemayehu, 
and Gorade 2020).
Initial attempts have been made to extract the BVFs from the BV plant bark for fiber-reinforced 
composite. Kumar et al. (2021) manually extracted the fiber bundles from the BV plant bark and 
treated them with 5% NaOH solution for 8 h at ambient temperature for surface modification. 
Bauhinia vahlii mat reinforced composite was developed from the treated fiber strand. Stalin and 
Ramkumar (2015) have prepared Bauhinia recemosa fiber-reinforced polyester composites from the 
dried and staple Bauhinia recemosa plant bark of 30 mm in length. Ray et al. (2020) have also extracted 
BV fiber strands by hammering the BV bark, followed by surface modification. Till now, BVFs have 
been extracted in significantly coarser fiber strand form and used for making fiber-reinforced 
composite only. According to the available literature, no effort has been made to extract textile- 
grade BV fibers. There is a huge scope to explore this fiber further for use in textile products. The 
present study focuses on the extraction and characterization of textile-grade BVFs fiber from BV bark. 
Characterization of the fiber includes physical, chemical, morphological, structural, mechanical, and 
thermal analysis.
Material and methods
Materials
Bauhinia vahlii plant bark was supplied by District Rural Development Agency, Mayurbhanj, Odisha, 
India. Sodium hydroxide and acetic acid are used of Rankem, Maharashtra, India.
2 G. BAR AND K. CHAUDHARY
Fiber extraction process
To extract BV bast fiber, at first barks were sliced into 30–40 centimeters in length. Bark pieces were 
manually cleaned to remove the immature and woody parts, followed by dipping them into the water 
for 1 day at ambient temperature to soften the bark structure. Soft bark samples were treated with 15% 
(w/w) NaOH solution at around 95°C for 2 h to remove the lignin and other contaminants. 
Causticized samples were washed and passed through the padding mangle at a pressure of 3 bar to 
squeeze out the gummy substances from the bark. The squeezing process was repeated twice, followed 
by washing at 100°C for 30 min. The washed bark samples were neutralized with acetic acid. The final 
removal of leftover gummy substances from the bark was carried out by scraping with a teaspoon or 
simple knife. At this stage, the presence of impurities and gummy substances was minimal. The fiber 
layers were separated manually from the processed bark. Dried fiber layers were cut into a length of 
approximately 5 cm, and further fiber strands were separated in a width-wise direction. The extracted 
fiber was further opened by hand carding. The process sequence of fiber extraction is shown in 
Figure 2.
Physical property analysis
Mean fiber length was determined by randomly selecting 100 fibers from a tuft of BV fiber sample. 
Each fiber sample was straightened and the length was measured using a measuring scale. Mean fiber 
length, standard deviation (SD), and coefficient of variation (CV) were calculated from the measured 
fiber length. The fineness of the BVFs was determined utilizing an optical fiber diameter analyzer 
(OFDA 4000, BSC Electronics, Australia). The density of the BVFs (ρf) was quantified according to the 
ASTM-D3800–99 method using the below equation (Tamanna et al. 2021). A tuft of BVFs was 
weighed in air and subsequently in methanol using a 0.5 mm diameter copper suspension wire: 
Figure 1. Image of Bauhinia vahlii plant.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 3
ρf ¼
W3 � W1ð Þρl
W3 � W1ð Þ � ðW4 � W2ð Þ
(1) 
where W1, W2, W3, and W4 are the weight of copper wire in the air, copper wire in liquid up to the 
immersion point, fiber tuft along with copper wire in the air, and fiber tuft along with suspension wire 
in liquid, respectively. The specific density of methanol (ρl) is 0.79 g/ml.
Morphological characterization
A SEM (Zeiss, EVO 50) at different magnification levels was operated at 20 kv accelerating voltage to 
examine surface morphology and cross-sectional view of BVFs. For cross-sectional view, fibers were 
inserted inside a cork with the help of a sharp needle. Then, the cork and the fibers were finely sliced 
perpendicular to the axis of the fibers using a sharp blade. A thin layer of gold coating was applied to 
the fiber sample to avoid the accumulation of electrical charges.
Fourier transform-infrared analysis
The FTIR spectra of the BVFs were captured on a thermo FTIR (model Nicolet iS-50) from 400 to 
4000 cm−1 wavenumber to detect the functional group present in the fiber. A KBr pallet was prepared 
by mixing and compressing one part of finely chopped BVFs powder with nine parts of KBr, and it was 
used for FTIR analysis.
X-ray diffraction analysis
The crystallinity index (CI) of BVFs was estimated using an X-ray diffractometer (×’pert PRO, 
PANalytical) with a scanning velocity of 2 degrees/minute and an X-ray of 0.154 nm wavelength. 
Finely crushed BVFs powder was used for the analysis. The crystallinity index of BVFs was computed 
using the area method as per the equation below (Ling et al. 2019): 
(a) (b) (c) (d) 
(e) (g) (f) (h) 
Figure 2. Stepwise extraction process of BVFs: (a) collected BV bark, (b) treating with NaOH solution at 95°C, (c) removal of the 
gummy substance by scraping with a simple knife, (d) separation of fiber layers, (e) fiber layer cut into smaller pieces, (f) manually 
extracted fiber, (g) hand carding of the fiber, and (h) final fiber after hand carding.
4 G. BAR AND K. CHAUDHARY
CI ¼
ACrystalline
ATotal
X100 (2) 
OriginPro software was used to measure the area underneath the crystalline peak region (ACrystalline) 
and total area (ATotal) beneath the X-ray spectra. The interplanar spacing of BVFs was estimated at 
various lattice planes employing Bragg’s equation (Kumar and Das 2016): 
nλ ¼ 2dhklsinθ (3) 
where dhkl stands for an interplanar distance of hkl crystallographic planes, θ signifies Bragg’s angle, λ 
symbolizes the X-ray wavelength, and n defines the diffraction order. The crystallite size (CS) of the 
BVFs was determined using Scherrer’s equation (Elenga et al. 2009): 
CS ¼
Kλ
βcosθ
(4) 
where K is Scherrer’s constant having a value of 0.89, β stands for peak’s full-width at half-maximum 
in radian.
Chemical analysis
Bauhinia vahlii fiber was analyzed to determine their chemical components, using the process 
mentioned by Sengupta, Mazumdar, and Macmillan (1958). The acid-insoluble klason lignin 
was quantified using the TAPPI method (T 222 om-06). Pectin was isolated from the BVFs by 
treating the fiber with ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid at boiling temperature for 45 min (Wang 
et al. 2015). The moisture content percentage of BVFs was calculated using the below formula 
(Sathishkumar et al. 2013): 
Moisture content %ð Þ ¼
Initial weight of the fiber � Oven dry weight of the fiber
Initial weight of the fiber
X100 (5) 
Mechanical characterization
The tensile strength and breaking elongation of BVFs were measured using a tensile tester (Vibrodyn 
500, Lenzing Instruments) as per the standard (ASTM D3822-01) with a gauge length and crosshead 
speed of 10 mm and 0.1 mm/minute, respectively. Twenty fibers were tested, having a fiber length of 
25–30 mm, and their diameter was assessed in three distinct places using digital projection of 
paramount (Bar et al. 2021).
Thermogravimetric analysis
The thermal properties of the BVFs were studied by thermogravimetric (TG) and derivative thermo-
gravimetric (DTG) assessment using a simultaneous thermal analyzer SDT650. The test was carried 
out for BVFs from ambient temperature to 750°C with a 10°C per minute scanning rate. OriginPro 
software calculated initial and maximum decomposition temperatures,weight loss percentage, and ash 
content. The kinetic activation energy (Ea) of BVFs was calculated according to the Broido’s equation 
as mentioned below (Md et al. 2022): 
ln ln
1
y
� �� �
¼ �
Ea
R
� �
1
T
� �
þ K
� �
(6) 
where y represents normalized weight [ratio of weight at any temperature to initial weight], R is the gas 
constant (8.314 J/mol K), T is the temperature in Kelvin, and K is the constant of the reaction rate.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 5
Results and discussion
Physical property analysis
Fiber length and fineness are the two important characteristics of any staple fiber for their spinnability. 
The lengths of BVFs vary from 9 to 32 mm, with an average value of 20.05 mm. The average length of 
BVFs is slightly shorter than the cotton (20–35 mm) fiber (Wang and Wang 2009). Figure 3 depicts the 
distribution of fibers length of randomly selected 100 BV fibers. The SD and CV of the measured fibers 
are 5.67 mm and 28.28%, respectively. Figure 4 demonstrates the distribution of BV fibers’ fineness. 
The fineness of 95% BV fibers ranges from 4 to 34 microns, with an average fiber fineness of 15.77 
microns comparable to the cotton fiber (12–38 microns). Only 5% of fibers are coarser than 33.57 
microns. The calculated spin fineness of BVFs is below 25.6 microns, with 91.8% of fibers falling within 
this limit. The comfort factor of the BVFs as per the mean fiber fineness is 93.8%, as quantified using 
an optical fiber diameter analyzer. The average aspect ratio of BVFs is 1271, more than the minimum 
fiber length to diameter ratio required to convert the fibers into yarn. The density of BVFs is 1.47 gm/ 
cm3 as determined using Archimedes’ buoyancy method. It is very close to that of other cellulosic 
fibers, such as cotton, jute, hemp, flax, sisal, and nettle. Comparative data of fiber fineness and fiber 
density are tabulated in Table 1.
Morphological characteristics
Figure 5 depicts a SEM image of BV fibers extracted with 15% NaOH at 1500X magnification. The 
causticizing process removed a considerable amount of lignin and pectin from the fiber matrix, 
enabling the fibers’ separation, as seen in the image (Kumar and Das 2016). Though the 
maximum impurities have already been removed from the fiber surface, surface roughness, 
and fragmented impurities can still be visible. Further removal of lignin and other contaminants 
may cause structural damage to the fiber (Kumar and Das 2016). Fiber surface roughness 
reduces the fiber-to-fiber slippage in the yarn due to better mechanical interlocking and 
enhances the yarn’s mechanical characteristics (Yao and Chen 2013). Figure 6 depicts a cross- 
sectional view of the extracted BV fibers. Fiber cross-sections range from circular to flat oval. An 
eye-shaped lumen can be seen in a few fiber samples. The shape factor (q) of the BVFs was 
calculated by implementing the below equation (Neckář and Das 2012): 
(a) (b) 
Figure 3. (A) Bauhinia vahlii fiber and (b) fiber length distribution of BVFs.
6 G. BAR AND K. CHAUDHARY
q ¼
p
πd
� 1 (7) 
where p stands for perimeter and d symbolizes the equivalent diameter of the fiber. The value of 
p and d was measured using MIPAR image analysis software. The shape factor of the BVFs is 0.1232. 
In the case of circular, square, hexagonal, or triangular cross-sections, the shape factor will be 0.0, 
0.1281, 0.1547, or 0.2858, respectively (Kumar and Das 2016).
Fourier transform-infrared analysis
As illustrated in Figure 7, the FTIR spectrum helps identify the functional groups present in the 
BVFs. Stretching of the aromatic ring of lignin is seen at around 3650–4000 cm−1, which 
validates the existence of lignin in the BVFs (Ray et al. 2020). A broad and deep absorbance 
peak that appeared at 3342 cm−1 corresponds to O–H bond stretching and confirms the presence 
of α–cellulose (Hyness et al. 2018; Vijay et al. 2021). Another absorbance peak observed at 2900 
cm−1 is characteristic of the stretching vibration of the C–H bond, which strengthens the 
presence of cellulose and hemicellulose in the BVFs (Vijay et al. 2021). A narrow peak spotted 
at 1634 cm−1 is linked to the vibration of absorbed water in cellulose as well as C=O stretching 
of lignin (Hyness et al. 2018). The peak that appeared at 1427 cm−1 is connected to the CH2 
symmetric bending of cellulose (Chand and Fahim 2008). The peak at 1370 and 1316 cm−1 are 
linked to –CH bending vibration and C–O stretching of aromatic rings of cellulose polysacchar-
ides, respectively (Zhuang et al. 2020). Peak noticed at 1204 cm−1 is assigned to –COO vibration 
of the acetyl group of hemicellulose (Reddy et al. 2013). The peak noticed at 1110 cm−1 is 
attributed to in-plane deformation of the aromatic C–H bond within lignin (Zhuang et al. 2020). 
An intense absorbance peak observed at 1058 cm−1 and a small peak at 1036 cm−1 represented 
symmetric C–O-H stretching of lignin (Maheshwaran et al. 2018). The infra-red absorption 
bands at 1162 and 898 cm−1 are attributed to C–O–C stretching at β-(1–4)-glycosidic linkages of 
cellulose and hemicellulose (Baskaran et al. 2018). The Fourier transform-infrared spectrum of 
BVFs confirms that the fiber contains cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin.
Figure 4. BVFs fineness distribution.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 7
Ta
bl
e 
1.
 P
ro
pe
rt
ie
s 
of
 B
VF
s 
in
 c
om
pa
ris
on
 t
o 
ot
he
r 
na
tu
ra
l c
el
lu
lo
si
c 
fib
er
s.
Fi
be
r
Fi
ne
ne
ss
 
(m
ic
ro
n)
D
en
si
ty
 (g
m
/ 
cm
3 )
St
re
ng
th
 
(M
Pa
)
El
on
ga
tio
n 
(%
)
Cr
ys
ta
lli
ni
ty
 
in
de
x
Cr
ys
ta
lli
te
 S
iz
e 
(n
m
)
Re
fe
re
nc
e
BV
Fs
15
.7
7
1.
47
72
-5
12
2.
4–
6.
7
56
3.
2
Cu
rr
en
t 
St
ud
y
Co
tt
on
12
–3
8
1.
52
28
7–
80
0
7–
8
65
–7
0
5.
5
Ch
an
d 
an
d 
Fa
hi
m
 (2
00
8)
; R
ed
dy
 a
nd
 Y
an
g 
(2
00
8)
; E
le
ng
a 
et
 a
l. 
(2
00
9)
Fl
ax
40
-6
00
1.
50
34
5–
15
00
2.
7–
3.
2
70
2.
8
Ch
an
d 
an
d 
Fa
hi
m
 (2
00
8)
; T
am
an
na
 e
t 
al
. (
20
21
); 
M
os
hi
 e
t 
al
. (
20
19
)
Ju
te
25
– 
20
0
1.
46
39
3–
80
0
1.
1–
1.
5
58
.9
3.
58
Ch
an
d 
an
d 
Fa
hi
m
 (2
00
8)
; M
os
hi
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t 
al
. (
20
19
); 
W
an
g 
et
 a
l. 
(2
01
9)
H
em
p
25
–5
00
1.
47
69
0
1.
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2.
4
69
–8
3
–
Ch
an
d 
an
d 
Fa
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m
 (2
00
8)
; R
ed
dy
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nd
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an
g 
(2
00
8)
Ra
m
ie
25
–5
0
1.
55
40
0–
93
8
1.
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3.
8
58
16
Ch
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d 
an
d 
Fa
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m
 (2
00
8)
; M
os
hi
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t a
l. 
(2
01
9)
; T
am
an
na
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t a
l. 
(2
02
1)
; 
El
en
ga
 e
t 
al
. (
20
09
)
Ke
na
f
12
–3
6
1.
45
25
0
1.
3–
3.
3
61
–6
9
–
Re
dd
y 
an
d 
Ya
ng
 (2
00
8)
, S
re
en
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as
, K
ris
hn
am
ur
th
y,
 a
nd
 A
rp
ith
a 
(2
02
0)
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sa
l
25
–2
00
1.
45
46
8–
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0
3–
7
75
–
Ch
an
d 
an
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Fa
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m
 (2
00
8)
; M
os
hi
 e
t 
al
. (
20
19
)
Al
bi
zi
a 
ju
lib
ris
sin
16
2
1.
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3.
40
9.
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7
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79
M
d 
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(2
02
2)
Ac
ac
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 n
ilo
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–
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3.
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Ku
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. (
20
22
)
Br
as
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ar
. I
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t 
al
. (
20
22
)
Pu
rp
le
 B
au
hi
ni
a
51
1
1.
46
33
8.
6
9.
1
54
.9
8
4.
3
Ra
je
sh
ku
m
ar
 e
t 
al
. (
20
21
)
Sy
m
ph
ire
m
a 
in
vo
lu
cr
at
um
54
2
1.
39
39
7.
22
6.
77
28
.2
2
5.
1
Ra
ju
 e
t 
al
. (
20
21
)
Sa
ns
ev
ie
ria
 r
ox
bu
rg
hi
an
a 
Sc
hu
lt.
 
& 
Sc
hu
lt.
 F
10
6
0.
95
21
3.
6
1.
12
95
.5
5
5.
25
G
op
i K
ris
hn
a,
 K
ai
la
sa
na
th
an
, a
nd
 N
ag
ar
aj
aG
an
es
h 
(2
02
2)
Va
ch
el
lia
 fa
rn
es
ia
na
23
1
1.
27
33
.0
8
–
13
31
.8
9
Vi
ja
y 
et
 a
l. 
(2
02
2)
Zi
ng
ib
er
 O
ffi
ci
na
le
–
1.
4
22
0–
24
0
1.
1
78
.8
1
–
Ey
up
og
lu
 (2
02
2)
Be
et
ro
ot
 p
la
nt
28
4.
04
0.
52
50
.6
8
7.
72
87
3.
92
Eyup
og
lu
 a
nd
 E
yu
po
gl
u 
(2
02
2)
La
ve
nd
er
 s
te
m
29
5
0.
87
22
6.
65
2.
94
–4
.6
9
79
.0
6
3.
87
Ey
up
og
lu
 a
nd
 M
er
da
n 
(2
02
1a
)
Al
ce
a 
ro
se
 L
.
32
0
0.
45
80
.9
6
2.
47
80
3.
89
Ey
up
og
lu
 a
nd
 M
er
da
n 
(2
02
1b
)
8 G. BAR AND K. CHAUDHARY
X-ray diffraction analysis
An X-ray diffractogram of BVFs is illustrated in Figure 8. X-ray diffraction pattern of BVFs 
shows two major diffraction peaks at 2θ of about 15.23° and 22.79°Correspond to (1 0 1) and (0 
0 2) crystal lattice plane sequentially (Bar et al. 2021). The broad peak detected at 2θ = 15.23° 
confirms the presence of hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and amorphous cellulose (Baskaran et al. 
2018). The sharp peak observed at 2θ = 22.79°Characterizes the lattice plane of cellulose I (Vijay 
et al. 2021). The crystalline region of BVFs is lying in-between 2θ = 19.65° to 25.21° and 2θ = 
13.17° to 17.97°. The crystallinity index of BVFs is estimated as 56%, which is very close to the 
cotton fiber. The crystallinity index of BVFs is compared with other natural cellulosic fibers used 
in conventional textile materials and is tabulated in Table 1. The interplanar or lattice plane 
spacing in the above-mentioned diffraction peaks is computed using Bragg’s equation and 
Figure 5. Longitudinal view of BVFs extracted at 1500X magnification.
(b) (a) Lumen 
Figure 6. Cross-sectional view of BVFs (a) at 2000X magnification (b) at 5000X magnification.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 9
determined to be 0.58 and 0.39 nm sequentially. The crystal lattice planes are very close and 
tightly packed at 2θ of 22.79°Compared to 15.23° (Kumar and Das 2016). The crystallite sizes of 
the BVFs determined against (1 0 1) and (0 0 2) crystal lattice planes are 3.85 and 2.56 nm, 
respectively. The average crystallite size of BVFs is 3.2 nm, smaller than the Indian cotton fiber 
of 5.5 nm, cornstalk fiber of 3.8 nm, ramie of 16 nm (Elenga et al. 2009), and jute of 3.58 nm 
(Wang et al. 2019). However, it is slightly larger than that of flax 2.8 nm (Tamanna et al. 2021). 
The average crystallite size of BVFs is close to the other conventional natural cellulosic fibers 
used to produce yarns and fabrics. Fibers having equivalent crystallinity and lower crystallite size 
increase the chemical reactivity as well as moisture absorption capacity due to its larger total 
surface area compared to bigger crystallite sizes (Elenga et al. 2009).
Figure 7. FTIR spectrum of BVFs.
Figure 8. X-ray diffractogram of BVFs.
10 G. BAR AND K. CHAUDHARY
Chemical analysis
The physical properties of any fiber depend on its chemical constituents. Further, the chemical 
composition of lignocellulosic fiber is affected not only by the kind of plant but also on the 
geographical location and climatic condition where the plant grows, the plant’s age, and the fiber 
extraction method (Baskaran et al. 2018). Bauhinia vahlii fiber was extracted with 15% NaOH solution 
containing 75.8% holocellulose, of which 65.2% was α-cellulose and 10.6% hemicellulose. The α- 
cellulose content of BVFs is very much comparable with other lignocellulosic fibers, whereas hemi-
cellulose content is lower than that of flax, jute, hemp, and sisal. Bauhinia vahlii fiber also contained 
13.7% acid insoluble klason lignin, which is also lower than the flax, jute, and kenaf fiber, as concluded 
in Table 2. Bauhinia vahlii fiber also contained 1.8% pectin. The moisture content of the BVFs is 
measured as 10.5%, which is higher than the cotton fiber and at par with other natural cellulosic fibers, 
also tabulated in Table 2. The lower crystallinity and crystallite size of BVFs enhance the moisture 
absorption in the fiber (Elenga et al. 2009).
Tensile strength
The tensile property of fibers mainly depends on their chemical components and their percentage. For 
natural cellulosic fibers, cellulose microfibrils act as a load-bearing component and give structural 
integrity to the fiber. The strength of a fiber depends on its microfibril angle as well as its orientation in 
the cell wall (Petroudy 2017). The microfibril angle (α) is derived by applying the global deformation 
(ε) equation (Maheshwaran et al. 2018). 
ε ¼ ln 1þ
ΔL
L0
� �
¼ � ln cosαð Þ (8) 
L0 is the gauge length in mm, and ΔL is the breaking elongation in mm. The microfibril angle of BVFs 
varies from 12.43° to 20.41°, which is higher than other natural cellulosic fibers like jute (8.1°), ramie 
(8°), flax (5°), hemp (6.2°), and very similar to sisal (10°–25°), cotton (14.6°–23.8°) (Maheshwaran et al. 
2018; Petroudy 2017). The fiber sample mounted for testing and the tensile strength–elongation curve 
of BVFs is shown in Figure 9. It was observed from the tensile strength-elongation graph that the curve 
is slightly concave to the elongation axis, like the other natural cellulosic fibers. The tensile strength 
and elongation have a linear relationship (Eyupoglu 2022). The average breaking strength of BVFs is 
187 Mpa. The tensile strength of BVFs is a little less compared to other natural cellulosic fibers due to 
their very fine mesh structure and higher microfibril angle. The higher microfibril angle also indicates 
that the BVFs is less stiff than the jute and flax fiber (Petroudy 2017). The breaking elongation of BVFs 
varies from 2.4% to 6.7%, with an average breaking elongation of 4.4%, which is higher than the flax, 
jute, hemp, sisal, and kenaf fiber and lower than cotton fiber. Table 1 compares tensile strength and 
breaking elongation of BVFs with other fibers.
Thermogravimetric analysis
Thermogravimetric and derivative thermogravimetric curves were derived from the thermal study of BVFs 
from ambient temperature to 750°C, as illustrated in Figure 10. Thermogravimetric analysis curve of BVFs 
exhibits multiple phases of degradation with an increase in temperature. In the first phase of degradation, 
two small endothermic peaks are seen in the DTG curve at 59°C and 151°C, which is attributed to the 
evaporation of moisture and elimination of structurally bound water molecules in the fiber (Alwani et al. 
2014; Legrand et al. 2020). Till 159°C, 9.83% weight loss is observed. From 159°C to 233.4°C, the BVFs is 
thermally stable, having a minimal weight loss of 0.55%. Textile materials manufactured from BVFs can be 
processed or ironed at this temperature. In the second phase of degradation, which starts from 233.4°C, 
weight loss of 62.05% is noticed, which refers to the disintegration of hemicellulose, glycosidic linkages of 
cellulose, cellulose I, and α-cellulose (Belouadah, Ati, and Rokbi 2015). A deep endothermic peak at 368°C 
JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 11
Ta
bl
e 
2.
 C
he
m
ic
al
 c
om
po
si
tio
n 
of
 B
VF
s 
in
 c
om
pa
ris
on
 t
o 
ot
he
r 
na
tu
ra
l c
el
lu
lo
si
c 
fib
er
s.
Fi
be
r
Ce
llu
lo
se
 
(w
t%
)
H
em
i 
ce
llu
lo
se
 
(w
t%
)
Li
gn
in
 
(w
t%
)
Pe
ct
in
 
(w
t%
)
W
ax
 
(w
t%
)
As
h 
 
(w
t%
)
M
oi
st
ur
e 
co
nt
en
t 
(%
)
Re
fe
re
nc
es
BV
Fs
65
.2
10
.6
13
.7
1.
8
–
–
10
.5
Cu
rr
en
t 
St
ud
y
Co
tt
on
82
.7
5.
7
–
–
0.
6
–
7.
85
–8
.5
Sa
th
is
hk
um
ar
 e
t 
al
. (
20
13
); 
Ta
m
an
na
 e
t 
al
. (
20
21
)
Fl
ax
60
–8
1
18
.6
–2
0.
6
14
–1
9
2.
3
1.
7
–
10
.0
M
ew
ol
i e
t 
al
. (
20
20
); 
Ta
m
an
na
 e
t 
al
. (
20
21
)
Ju
te
45
–8
4
12
–2
1
13
–2
6
0.
2
–
0.
5–
2
12
.6
Ch
an
d 
an
d 
Fa
hi
m
 (2
00
8)
; M
ew
ol
i e
t 
al
. (
20
20
); 
Am
ut
ha
 a
nd
 
Se
nt
hi
lk
um
ar
 (2
02
1)
H
em
p
70
–7
4
17
.9
–2
2.
4
3.
5–
 
5.
7
0.
9
0.
8
0.
8
10
.1
3
M
ew
ol
i e
t 
al
. (
20
20
). 
St
ev
ul
ov
a 
et
 a
l. 
(2
01
5)
Ra
m
ie
68
.6
–9
1
5–
16
.7
0.
6–
 
0.
7
1.
9
–
–
8.
0
Ch
an
d 
an
d 
Fa
hi
m
 (2
00
8)
; T
am
an
na
 e
t 
al
. (
20
21
)
Ke
na
f
31
–6
3.
5
17
.6
–2
1.
5
15
–1
9
2
–
2–
5
6–
12
Ch
an
d 
an
d 
Fa
hi
m
 (2
00
8)
; M
ew
ol
i e
t 
al. (
20
20
); 
Ta
m
an
na
 e
t 
al
. 
(2
02
1)
Si
sa
l
47
–7
8
10
–2
4
7–
11
10
–
0.
6–
1
10
.2
2
Ch
an
d 
an
d 
Fa
hi
m
 (2
00
8)
; T
am
an
na
 e
t 
al
. (
20
21
)
Al
bi
zi
a 
ju
lib
ris
sin
55
.8
3
10
.7
4
16
.0
3
–
0.
53
10
.8
4
8.
44
M
d 
et
 a
l. 
(2
02
2)
Ac
ac
ia
 n
ilo
tic
a 
L.
56
.4
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14
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4
8.
33
–
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85
4.
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Ku
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ar
 e
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. (
20
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)
Br
as
sic
a 
ol
er
ac
ea
 V
ar
. I
ta
lic
47
.8
–
13
.4
–
–
–
–
Ey
up
og
lu
 (2
02
1)
M
om
or
di
ca
 c
ha
ra
nt
ia
61
.2
7.
3
14
.3
2
–
1.
1
2.
24
6.
3
Kh
an
 e
t 
al
. (
20
22
)
Pu
rp
le
 B
au
hi
ni
a
60
.5
4
9.
17
16
.2
7
–
1.
28
6.
24
10
.5
4
Ra
je
sh
ku
m
ar
 e
t 
al
. (
20
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)
Sy
m
ph
ire
m
a 
in
vo
lu
cr
at
um
57
.3
2
12
.4
7
13
.8
5
–
0.
56
–
9.
11
Ra
ju
 e
t 
al
. (
20
21
)
Sa
ns
ev
ie
ria
 r
ox
bu
rg
hi
an
a 
Sc
hu
lt.
 
& 
Sc
hu
lt.
 F
78
.6
3
2.
01
9.
86
-
0.
16
1.
49
7.
85
G
op
i K
ris
hn
a,
 K
ai
la
sa
na
th
an
, a
nd
 N
ag
ar
aj
aG
an
es
h 
(2
02
2)
Va
ch
el
lia
 fa
rn
es
ia
na
38
.3
12
.1
9.
2
–
3.
4
6.
21
11
Vi
ja
y 
et
 a
l. 
(2
02
2)
Zi
ng
ib
er
 O
ffi
ci
na
le
70
.0
5
26
.4
5
3.
5
–
–
–
–
Ey
up
og
lu
 (2
02
2)
W
as
hi
ng
to
ni
a 
le
af
 s
ta
lk
32
.1
9
19
.3
4
10
.0
4
–
–
8.
1
–
Ja
w
ai
d 
et
 a
l. 
(2
02
1)
12 G. BAR AND K. CHAUDHARY
is attributed to the higher decomposition rate. The decomposition rate is reduced in the third phase of 
degradation, which ranges from 385°C to 696°C with 11.92% weight loss, which is associated with the 
decomposition of residual cellulose, lignin, and aromatics contained in BVFs (Legrand et al. 2020). The 
endothermic peak observed at 491°C links to maximal lignin degradation and thermal depolymerization of 
wax (Maheshwaran et al. 2018). Lignin decomposes slowly compared to cellulose and hemicellulose over 
a broad range of temperatures owing to several functional groups having varied thermal stabilities present 
in the fiber (Brebu and Vasile 2010). At 740°C, char content is 15.65%. The minimum energy required for 
the degradation of the fiber at a certain temperature is known as kinetic activation energy (Ea). The Ea of 
BVFs is 96.18 KJ/mol, as calculated from the Broido’s plot shown in Figure 10. The Ea of BVFs is within the 
range that of the other natural fibers (60–170 KJ/mol) (Md et al. 2022).
Conclusion
Successful extraction of BVFs has been accomplished from the BV plant bark using 15% NaOH solution at 
95°C. The morphological study reveals that the fiber surface has natural roughness, and the cross-sectional 
view varies from circular to flat oval. The fineness and the density of the BVFs are very close to the cotton 
fiber, and the average fiber length is slightly shorter than the cotton fiber. The FTIR and the chemical 
analysis have confirmed that extracted BVFs are rich in cellulose content. X-ray analysis of BVFs is exposed 
(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a) Thermogravimetric and derivative thermogravimetric curves, and (b) Broido’s plot of BVFs.
(a) (b) 
Figure 9. (a) BVFs mounted sample and (b) tensile strength elongation curve of BVFs.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 13
that it has 56% crystallinity, and the crystallite size of BVFs is smaller than the cotton fiber, which enhances 
its moisture absorption capacity as well as its reactivity. The thermogravimetric analysis proclaimed that 
BVFs is thermostable up to 233.4°C, and physical and chemical processing of this fiber can be done up to 
this temperature. The average tensile strength of the BVFs is 187 Mpa with 4.4% average breaking 
elongation. Findings of all the analyzes suggest that the extracted fiber can be used to convert them into 
yarn by blending with some short-staple cellulosic fiber-like cotton with a lower blend ratio keeping tensile 
strength into consideration.
Highlights
● Textile-grade novel Bauhinia Vahlii fiber (BVFs) were extracted by treating the Bauhinia Vahlii plant bark with 15% 
(w/w) sodium hydroxide solution at 95°C for 2 h with a 1:40 material to liquor ratio, followed by manual extraction of 
the fiber.
● The average fineness and the density of the BVFs are 15.77 microns and 1.47 gm/cm3, respectively. The mean fiber 
length of BVFs is 20.05 mm. BVFs contain 65.2% cellulose, 10.6% hemicellulose, 13.7% lignin, and 10.5% moisture. 
The average tensile strength of the BVFs is 187 Mpa with a 4.4% average breaking elongation.
● BVFs have 56% crystallinity. The average crystallite size is 2 nm, smaller than the cotton fiber’s, enhancing moisture 
absorption capacity and reactivity.
● BVFs are thermally stable up to 233.4°C.
● Findings of all the analyzes suggest that the extracted fiber can be used to convert them into yarn by blending with 
some short-staple cellulosic fiber like cotton with a lower blend ratio keeping the fiber length and tensile strength into 
consideration. Introduction
Acknowledgment
The authors want to thank the CRF, IIT Delhi, for extending their support in material testing.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
The authors received no financial assistance for their research, authorship, or article publication.
ORCID
Goutam Bar http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7620-4307
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects. Hence, ethical approval is not applicable.
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16 G. BAR AND K. CHAUDHARY
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	Abstract
	摘要
	Introduction
	Material and methods
	Materials
	Fiber extraction process
	Physical property analysis
	Morphological characterization
	Fourier transform-infrared analysis
	X-ray diffraction analysis
	Chemical analysis
	Mechanical characterization
	Thermogravimetric analysis
	Results and discussion
	Physical property analysis
	Morphological characteristics
	Fourier transform-infrared analysis
	X-ray diffraction analysis
	Chemical analysis
	Tensile strength
	Thermogravimetric analysis
	Conclusion
	Highlights
	Acknowledgment
	Disclosure statement
	Funding
	ORCID
	Ethical approval
	References